PREHISTORIC INDIA
History
History (from the Greek word – Historia, meaning “inquiry”,
knowledge acquired by investigation) is the study of the past. History is an
umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the discovery, collection,
organisation, presentation and interpretation of information about these
events.
It is divided into pre-history, proto-history, and history.
Pre-history – Events that occurred before the invention of
writing are considered pre-history. Pre-history is represented by the
three stone ages.
Proto-history – It refers to the period between
pre-history and history, during which a culture or organisation had not
developed yet but has its mention in the written records of a contemporary
literate civilisation. For example, the scripts of the Harappan civilization
remains undeciphered, however since its existence is noted in Mesopotamian
writing, it is considered part of proto-history. Similarly, Vedic civilisation
from 1500-600 BCE is considered part of proto-history as well. Neolithic and
Chalcolithic cultures are also considered part of proto-history by
archaeologists.
History – The study of the past after the invention of writing and
the study of literate societies based on written records and archaeological
sources constitute history.
Construction of Ancient Indian History
The sources which help in reconstructing history are:
Non-literary sources
Literary sources – which include religious literature & secular
literature
Non-Literary Sources
Coins: Ancient Indian currency was not issued in the form of paper
but as coins. The earliest coins found in India contained only a few symbols,
punch-marked coins made of silver & copper, but later coins mentioned the
names of the kings, gods, dates, etc. The areas where they were found indicate
the region of their circulation. This enabled to reconstruct the history of
several ruling dynasties, especially during Indo-Greek rule who
came to India from Northern Afghanistan and ruled India in 2nd and 1st
BCE. Coins throw light on the economic history of different dynasties and
also provide input on different parameters involved such as the script, art,
religion of that time. It also helps in understanding the progress made in
terms of metallurgy and science and technology. (The study of coins is
called Numismatics).
Archaeology/Material remains: The science which deals with the
digging of the old mounds in a systematic manner, in successive layers and
enables to form an idea of the material life of the people is called
Archaeology. Material remains recovered as a result of excavation and
exploration are subjected to various kinds of examinations. Their dates are
fixed according to radiocarbon dating. For example, excavated sites belonging
to the Harappan period help us to know about the life of the people who lived in
that era. Similarly, the Megaliths (graves in south India) throw light on the
life of the people living in the Deccan and South India before 300
BCE. The history of climate and vegetation is known through an examination
of plant residues, especially through pollen analysis.
Inscriptions/Prashastis – (The study and interpretation of ancient
inscriptions is called epigraphy). Writings engraved on hard surfaces such
as stone and metals like copper which usually record some achievements, ideas,
royal orders and decisions help in understanding different religions, and
administrative policies of that era. For example, inscriptions detailing state
policy issued by Emperor Ashoka and
inscriptions recording the land grants by Satavahanas, Kings of the Deccan.
Foreign accounts: Indigenous literature can be supplemented by
foreign accounts. To India came the Greek, Chinese and Roman visitors, either
as travellers or religious converts, and left behind a rich account of our
historical past. Some of the notables among them were:
Greek Ambassador Megasthenes wrote “Indica” and provided
valuable information about the Mauryan society and administration.
“The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea” and “Ptolemy’s Geography” both
written in Greek give valuable information about the ports and commodities of
trade between India and the Roman empire.
Fa-Hein Faxien (337 CE – 422 CE),
a Buddhist traveller, left a vivid account of the age of the Guptas.
Hsuan-Tsang, a Buddhist pilgrim, visited India and gave details of India
under the reign of King Harshavardhana and the glory of the Nalanda University.
Literary Sources
Religious Literature: The religious literature throws light on the
social, economic as well as cultural conditions of the ancient Indian period.
Some of the sources are:
The Four Vedas – The Vedas may be assigned to c.1500 –
500 BCE. The Rigveda mainly contains prayers while the later Vedic texts
(Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda) comprise not only prayers but rituals, magic
and mythological stories. Read more on the four Vedas in the linked article.
Upanishads – The Upanishads (Vedanta) contain philosophical
discussions on “Atma” and “Paramatma”.
Epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana – Of the two epics, the Mahabharata is
older in age and possibly reflects the state of affairs from the
10th century BCE to the 4th century CE. Originally it consisted of
8800 verses (called Jaya Samhita). The final compilation brought the
verses to 1,00,000 which came to be known as the Mahabharata or Satasahasri
Samhita. It contains narrative, descriptive and didactic material. The
Ramayana originally consisted of 12000 verses which were later raised to
24000. This epic also has its didactic portions which were added later.
Sutras – Sutras contain ritual literature such as Shrautasutras
(which include sacrifices, royal coronation) and Grihya Sutras (which include
domestic rituals like birth, naming, marriage, funeral, etc.)
Buddhist religious texts – The early Buddhist texts were written
in Pali language and are commonly known as Tripitaka (three baskets) –
Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka. These texts throw
invaluable light on the social and economic conditions of that era. They also
make references to political events in the age of the Buddha. Read more
on Buddhism.
Jaina’s religious texts – The Jaina texts commonly
called “angas”, were written in the Prakrit language, and contain
philosophical concepts of the Jainas. They contain many texts which help
to reconstruct the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the
age of Mahavira. The Jaina texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders. Read
more on Jainism.
Secular Literature: There is also a large body of secular
literature such as:
Dharmashastras/Law books – These lay down the duties for
different varnas as well as for the kings and their officials. They prescribe
the rules according to which property is to be held, sold and inherited. They
also prescribe punishments for persons guilty of theft, murder, etc.
Arthashastra – Arthashastra of Kautilya
reflects the state of society and economy in the age of the Mauryas.
Literary work of Kalidasa – The works of the great poet Kalidasa
comprises kavyas and dramas, the most important being
Abhijnanasakuntalam. Besides being creative composition, they give an
insight into the social and cultural life of northern and central India in
the age of the Guptas.
Rajatarangini – This is the famous book written by Kalhana and
depicts the social and political life of 12th century CE Kashmir.
Charitas/Biographies – Charitas are the biographies written by
court poets in admiration of their rulers such as Harshacharita written by
Banabhatta in praise of King Harshavardhana.
Sangam literature – This is the earliest south Indian
literature, produced by poets who assembled together (Sangam), and provides
valuable information about the social, economic and political life of the
people living in deltaic Tamil Nadu. This Tamil literature contains literary
gems such as ‘Silappadikaram’ and ‘Manimekalai’. Read more on Sangam Literature in
the linked article.
Stone Age
The stone age is the prehistoric period, i.e., the period before the
development of the script, therefore the main source of information for this
period is the archaeological excavations. Robert Bruce Foote is the
archaeologist who discovered the first palaeolithic tool in India, the Pallavaram
handaxe.
On the basis of geological age, the type and technology of stone tools,
and subsistence base, the Indian stone age is classified primarily into
three types-
Palaeolithic age (old stone age): Period – 500,000 – 10,000 BCE
Mesolithic age (late stone age): Period – 10,000 – 6000 BCE
Neolithic age (new stone age): Period – 6000 – 1000 BCE
Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age)
The term ‘Palaeolithic’ is derived from the Greek word ‘palaeo’ which
means old and ‘lithic’ meaning stone. Therefore, the term Palaeolithic age
refers to the old stone age. The old stone age or palaeolithic culture of
India developed in the Pleistocene period or the Ice Age, which is a
geological period of the age when the earth was covered with ice and the
weather was so cold that human or plant life could not survive. But in the
tropical region, where ice melted, the earliest species of men could exist.
Main characteristics of the Palaeolithic age –
The Indian people are believed to have belonged to the ‘Negrito’
race, and lived in the open air, river valleys, caves and rock shelters.
They were food gatherers, ate wild fruits and vegetables, and lived
on hunting.
There was no knowledge of houses, pottery, agriculture. It was only in
later stages they discovered fire.
In the upper palaeolithic age, there is evidence of art in the form of
paintings.
Humans used unpolished, rough stones like hand axes, choppers, blades,
burins and scrapers.
Palaeolithic men are also called ‘Quartzite’ men in India as
the stone tools were made of a hard rock called quartzite.
The old stone age or palaeolithic age in India is divided into three
phases according to the nature of the stone tools used by the people and also
according to the nature of the change of climate.
Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to 100,000 BC
Middle Palaeolithic Age: 100,000 BC – 40,000
BC
Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BC – 10,000 BC
Lower Palaeolithic Age (Early Palaeolithic
Age)
It covers the greater part of the Ice Age.
Hunters and food gatherers; tools used were hand axes, choppers and
cleavers. Tools were rough and heavy.
One of the earliest lower Palaeolithic sites is Bori in Maharashtra.
Limestone was also used to make tools.
Major sites of lower Palaeolithic age
Soan valley (in present Pakistan)
Sites in the Thar Desert
Kashmir
Mewar plains
Saurashtra
Gujarat
Central India
Deccan Plateau
Chotanagpur plateau
North of the Cauvery River
Belan valley in UP
There are habitation sites including caves and rock shelters.
An important place is Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.
Middle Palaeolithic age
Tools used were flakes, blades, pointers, scrapers and borers.
The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner.
There was a decrease in the use of hand axes with respect to other
tools.
Important middle Palaeolithic age sites
Belan valley in UP
Luni valley (Rajasthan)
Son and Narmada rivers
Bhimbetka
Tungabhadra river valleys
Potwar Plateau (between Indus & Jhelum)
Sanghao cave (near Peshawar, Pakistan)
Upper Palaeolithic age
The upper palaeolithic age coincided with the last phase of the ice
age when the climate became comparatively warmer and less humid.
Emergence of Homo sapiens.
The period is marked by innovation in tools and technology. A lot
of bone tools, including needles, harpoons, parallel-sided blades, fishing
tools and burin tools.
Major sites of Upper Palaeolithic age
Bhimbhetka (South of Bhopal) – hand axes and cleavers, blades,
scrapers and a few burins have been found here.
Belan
Son
Chota Nagpur plateau (Bihar)
Maharashtra
Orissa and
The Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh
Bone tools have been found only at cave sites of Kurnool and Muchchatla
Chintamani Gavi in Andhra Pradesh.
Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age)
The term Mesolithic is derived from two Greek words – ‘meso’ and
‘lithic’. In Greek ‘meso’ means middle and ‘lithic’ means stone. Hence, the
Mesolithic stage of prehistory is also known as the ‘Middle Stone Age’.
Both Mesolithic and Neolithic phases belong to the Holocene
era. In this era, there was a rise in temperature, the climate became warm
which resulted in melting of ice and also brought changes in flora and fauna.
Characteristic Features of the Mesolithic Era
The people of this age lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering
initially but later on they also domesticated animals and cultivated
plants, thereby paving the way for agriculture.
The first animal to be domesticated was the wild ancestor of the dog.
Sheep and goats were the most common domesticated animals.
The Mesolithic people lived in semi-permanent settlements along with
occupying caves and open grounds.
The people of this era believed in life after death and hence they
buried the dead with food items and other goods.
The characteristic tools of this era were microliths – the
miniature stone tools usually made of crypto-crystalline silica, chalcedony or
chert, both of geometrical and non-geometrical shapes. They were not only used
as tools but were also used to make composite tools, spearheads, arrowheads,
and sickles after hafting them on wooden or bone handles. These microliths
enabled the Mesolithic man to hunt smaller animals and birds.
The Mesolithic men started to wear clothes made of animal skin.
The Mesolithic people were art lovers and initiated rock art. The
subject matter of these paintings was mostly wild animals and hunting scenes,
dancing and food collection were also depicted in such paintings. These rock
paintings give an idea about the development of religious practices and also
reflect the division of labour on the basis of gender.
The first human colonization of the Ganga
Plains happened during this period.
Important Mesolithic Sites
Bagor in Rajasthan is one of the biggest and best-documented
Mesolithic sites in India. Bagor is on river Kothari where microliths
along with animal bones and shells have been excavated.
Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh provides the earliest evidence for the
domestication of animals.
There are about 150 Mesolithic rock art sites across India, with a rich
concentration in Central India such as Bhimbetka caves (Madhya Pradesh),
Kharwar, Jaora and Kathotia (M.P), Sundargarh and Sambalpur (Odisha), Ezhuthu
Guha (Kerala).
Microliths have also been found in some valleys of river Tapi,
Sabarmati, Narmada, and Mahi.
Langhnaj in Gujarat and Biharanpur in West Bengal are also important
Mesolithic sites. Bones of wild animals (rhinoceros, blackbuck, etc.) have
been excavated from Langhnaj. Several human skeletons and a large number of
microliths have been recovered from these places.
Though pottery is absent at most Mesolithic sites, they have been found
in Langhnaj (Gujarat) and in the Kaimur region of Mirzapur (U.P).
Neolithic Period (New Stone Age)
The term Neolithic is derived from the Greek word ‘neo’ which means new
and ‘lithic’ meaning stone. Thus, the term Neolithic Age refers to
the ‘New Stone Age’. It is also termed as ‘Neolithic revolution’ since it
introduced a lot of important changes in man’s social and economic life. The
Neolithic age saw man turning into a food producer from food gatherer.
Characteristic Features of the Neolithic Age
Tools and Weapons – The people used microlithic blades in
addition to tools made of polished stones. The use of celts was especially
important for ground and polished hand axes. They also used tools and weapons
made of bones – such as needles, scrapers, borers, arrowheads, etc. The use of
new polished tools made it easier for humans to cultivate, hunt and perform
other activities in a better manner.
Agriculture – The people of the Neolithic age cultivated land
and grew fruits and corn like ragi and horse gram (kulati). They also
domesticated cattle, sheep and goats.
Pottery – With the advent of agriculture, people were required to
store their food grains as well as to cook, eat the product, etc. That’s
why it is said that pottery appeared in this phase on a large scale. The
pottery of this period was classified under greyware, black-burnished ware, and
mat impressed ware. In the initial stages of the Neolithic age, handmade
pottery was made but later on, foot wheels were used to make pots.
Housing and Settled Life – The people of Neolithic age lived
in rectangular or circular houses which were made of mud and
reeds. Neolithic men also knew how to make boats and could spin cotton,
wool and weave cloth. The people of the Neolithic age led a more settled life
and paved the way for the beginning of civilization.
The neolithic people did not live far away from the hilly areas. They
inhabited mainly the hilly river valleys, rock shelters and the slopes of the
hills, since they were entirely dependent on weapons and tools made of stone.
Important Neolithic Sites
Koldihwa and Mahagara (lying south of Allahabad) – This site
provides evidence of circular huts along with crude hand made pottery. There is
also evidence of rice, which is the oldest evidence of rice, not only in
India but anywhere in the world.
Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan) – The earliest Neolithic site,
where people lived in houses built of sun-dried bricks and cultivated crops
like cotton and wheat.
Burzahom (Kashmir) – The domestic dogs were buried along with their
masters in their graves; people lived in pits and used tools made of polished
stones as well as bones.
Gufkral (Kashmir) – This neolithic site is famous for pit dwelling,
stone tools and graveyards in houses.
Chirand (Bihar) – The neolithic men used tools and weapons made of
bones.
Piklihal, Brahmagiri, Maski, Takkalakota, Hallur (Karnataka) – The
people were cattle herders. They domesticated sheep and goats. Ash mounds have
been found.
Belan Valley (which is located on the northern spurs of the
Vindhyas and middle part of Narmada valley) – All the three phases i.e.,
palaeolithic, mesolithic and neolithic ages are found in sequence.
Chalcolithic Age (Stone Copper Age)
The Chalcolithic Age marked the emergence of the use of metal along with
stone tools. The first metal to be used was copper. The chalcolithic age
largely applied to the pre-Harappan phase, but in many parts of the country, it
appears after the end of the bronze Harappan culture.
Characteristics of the Chalcolithic Age
Agriculture & cattle rearing – The people living in the stone-copper
age domesticated animals and cultivated food grains. They domesticated cows,
sheep, goats, pig and buffaloes and hunted deer. It is not clear whether they
were acquainted with the horse or not. People ate beef but did not take pork on
any considerable scale. The people of the Chalcolithic phase produced wheat and
rice, they also cultivated bajra. They also produced several pulses such as
lentil (masur), black gram, green gram, and grass pea. Cotton was produced in
the black cotton soil of the Deccan and ragi, bajra and several millets were
cultivated in the lower Deccan. The people belonging to the stone-copper phase
in the eastern regions lived mainly on fish and rice, which is still a popular
diet in that part of the country.
Pottery – The people of the stone-copper phase used
different types of pottery, one of which is called black and red pottery and
seems to have been widely prevalent in that era. The ochre-coloured pottery was
also popular. The potter’s wheel was used and painting with white linear
designs was also done.
Rural settlements – The people living in the stone age
were characterised by rural settlements and were not acquainted with burnt
bricks. They lived in thatched houses made of mud bricks. This age
also marked the beginning of social inequalities, as chiefs lived in
rectangular houses while the commoners lived in round huts. Their villages
consisted of more than 35 houses of different sizes, circular or rectangular in
shape. The chalcolithic economy is considered as a village economy.
Art and Craft – The chalcolithic people were expert
coppersmiths. They knew the art of copper smelting and were good stone workers
as well. They knew spinning and weaving and were well acquainted with the art
of manufacturing cloth. However, they did not know the art of writing.
Worship – Small clay images of earth goddesses have been
found from the chalcolithic sites. It is thus possible to say that
they venerated the Mother Goddess. In Malwa and Rajasthan, stylised bull
terracottas show that the bull served as a religious cult.
Infant mortality – Infant mortality was high among
the Chalcolithic people, as is evident from the burial of a large
number of children in West Maharashtra. In spite of being a food-producing
economy, the rate of infant mortality was very high. We can say that
the Chalcolithic social and economic pattern did not promote longevity.
Jewellery – The Chalcolithic people were fond of
ornaments and decoration. The women wore ornaments of shell and bone and
carried finely worked combs in their hair. They manufactured beads of
semi-precious stones such as carnelian, steatite, and quartz crystal.
Important Chalcolithic Sites
Ahar (Banas valley, South Eastern Rajasthan) – The people of this
region practised smelting and metallurgy, supplied copper tools to
other contemporary communities. Rice was cultivated here.
Gilund (Banas valley, Rajasthan) – Stone blade industry was
discovered here.
Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) – The largest Jorwe
culture site in Godavari valley. It is famous for recovery of bronze goods
such as bronze rhinoceros, elephant, two wheeled chariot with a rider and a
buffalo.
Malwa (Madhya Pradesh) – The settlements of Malwa culture are
mostly located on the Narmada and its tributaries. It provides evidence of
the richest chalcolithic ceramics, and also spindle whorls.
Kayatha (Madya Pradesh) – The settlement of Kayatha culture was
mostly located on the Chambal River and its tributaries. Houses had
mud-plastered floors, pre-Harappan elements in pottery along with copper
objects with sharp cutting edges were found.
Chirand, Senuar, Sonpur (Bihar), Mahishdal (West Bengal) – These
are the prominent chalcolithic sites in these states.
Songaon, Inamgaon and Nasik (Maharashtra) – Large mud houses
with ovens and circular pit houses have been discovered here.
Navdatoli (on Narmada) – It was one of the largest chalcolithic
settlements in the country. It was spread over 10 hectares and cultivated
almost all food grains.
Nevasa (Jorwe, Maharashtra) and Eran (Madhya Pradesh) – These sites
are known for their non-Harappan culture.
Prehistoric Period – Iron Age
Arrival of the Aryans: Vedic Period
Jainism, Buddhism
Mahajanapadas: the first major civilisation on the banks of the river
Ganga after the Indus Valley.
Indus Valley Civilization Important Sites
In India: Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal, Dholavira, Rangpur, Surkotda
(Gujarat), Banawali (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab). In Pakistan: Harappa (on river
Ravi), Mohenjodaro (on the Indus River in Sindh), Chanhudaro (in Sindh).
The civilization was first discovered during an excavation campaign
under Sir John Hubert Marshall in 1921–22 at Harappa following the discovery of
seals by J Fleet.
Harappan ruins were discovered by Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni
and Madho Sarup Vats.
Mohenjodaro ruins were excavated for the first time by R.D. Banerjee, E.
J. H. MacKay and Marshall.
The Indus Valley cities show a level of sophistication and advancement
not seen in other contemporary civilizations.
Most cities had similar patterns. There were two parts: a citadel and
the lower town.
Most cities had a Great Bath.
There were also granaries, 2-storied houses made of burnt bricks, closed
drainage lines, excellent stormwater, and wastewater management system, weights
for measurements, toys, pots, etc.
A large number of seals have been discovered.
Agriculture was the most important occupation. The first civilization to
cultivate cotton.
Animals were domesticated like sheep, goats, and pigs.
Crops were wheat, barley, cotton, ragi, dates, and peas.
Trade was conducted with the Sumerians.
Metal products were produced including those with copper, bronze, tin,
and lead. Gold and silver were also known. Iron was not known to them.
No structures like temples or palaces have been found.
The people worshipped male and female deities. A seal which was named
‘Pashupati Seal’ has been excavated and it shows an image of a three-eyed
figure. Marshall believed this to be an early form of Lord Shiva.
Excellent pieces of red pottery designed in black have been excavated.
Faience was used to make beads, bangles, earrings, and vessels.
Civilization also was advanced in making artworks. A statuette named
‘Dancing Girl’ has been found from Mohenjodaro and is believed to be 4000 years
old. A figure of a bearded Priest-King has also been found from Mohenjodaro.
Lothal was a dockyard.
Disposal of the dead was by burial in wooden coffins. Later on, in the H
Symmetry culture, bodies were cremated in urns.
The Indus Valley script has not yet been deciphered.
Indus Valley Civilization Decline
In this section, we discuss the possible reasons and theories given by
experts for the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.
The causes of the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization have not been
firmly established. Archaeologists now believe that the civilization did not
come to an abrupt end but gradually declined. People moved eastwards and cities
were abandoned. Writing and trade declined.
Mortimer Wheeler suggested that the Aryan invasion led to the decline of
the Indus Valley. This theory has now been debunked.
Robert Raikes suggests that tectonic movements and floods caused the
decline.
Other causes cited include a drying up of the rivers, deforestation, and
destruction of the green cover. It is possible that some cities were destroyed
by floods but not all. It is now accepted that several factors could have led
to the decline of the Indus Valley civilization.
New cities emerged only about 1400 years later.
